Arts and Politics - China, Germany, and the Soviet Union Essay

Arts and Politics - China, Germany, and the Soviet Union - Essay Example China, Germany, and the Soviet Union have been used as the target examples. This end of the article analyses the three choices, looks at their relationship and the reason as to why they were chosen as great choices for this report. In the 19th century, the Russian Tsars were clear in their articulation that revolutions stood in the offing, in the presence if outstanding masterpieces. There are situations in Russia where great artists of various forms were regarded as a threat to the government’ existence through their works of art. Pushkin, for example, as a great author who could express his thoughts in an articulate manner that was deemed as arrogant, with some freedom that made him make fun of official figures. His work, as per the governments, would rather have been used in public service. Art and politics have been closely related from past to present. There are some aspects that clearly point out the relationship between the two. The institutions of art, schemes in ideol ogy and some artists’ political dominance are just but a few. Over years, some authorities have tried to impose controls on ideologies in order to tame artists. Other governments have even attempted to thwart the freedom of expression as rolled out by artists. In China, the communist party pushed at gaining legitimacy in order to win cooperation from artists. The party tried to woo the artists to join in socialist constructions. The Chinese movements and the various notable interactions between the governments and artists place the country as one worthy of analysis for the purpose of this research. The artistic influence has grown in stages in China, with a recent period starting in the 1980’s after Mao’s death. This is a period that saw individual subjectivity on the rise and artists expressing themselves in minimal social reform. Germany has had its issues in the interactions between arts and politics as well. There were early attacks by the government to the artists, some of which indicate the magnitude that the artists had on the political arena. A good situation is in the 1940s when the national socialists banned all art that was in existence prior to 1933. There are examples of artists being forced to join certain groups, with those who refused being frustrated with professional dismissals. Looking at the mentioned issues, their effects and the reasons that led to their occurrence, art is an indispensable weapon in politics despite its autonomy, there is some coexistence that cannot be refuted. Looking at the Soviet Union, there is some inseparability between art and politics. According to Fox (1977), aesthetics and the style of art are led by the political exigencies. The politics of the day in the USSR dictate the Russian art. The styles of art in this country follow the trends that are in accord with the government. The links between art and politics in the Soviet can be traced from Karl Marx to Frederick Engels who asserted the i mportance of realistic representations to the state. The three countries have been able to showcase the tight bond between art and politics clearly as outlined b the examples stated above. A distinct relation is first evident in the manner in which the government controls the works of art. This may be represented vaguely, but political icons have treated artists with great suspicion from the word go, in all situations. In the USSR, the government dictated the styles; in Germany, the â€Å"degenerate art† exhibition indicated the government’s perception towards art and culture. In China, the government literally controlled the artistic movements.     

Compare and Contrast between Saudi Arabia and USA Essay

Compare and Contrast between Saudi Arabia and USA - Essay Example In the education system, there are similarities and equal differences between America and Saudi Arabia. Indeed, the similarities manifest in freedom to choose institutions of learning, governments spending and provision of education for all including those with special needs. The differences manifest in literacy levels, stages of education, gender roles, role of religion, and attitude towards education. In fact, in both countries, education is a major priority and as such both governments allocates huge resources to the education sector. To this extent, both governments finances general education for both boys and girls, accords financial assistance to needy students and offers free post-secondary education to all. At the same time, both governments provide many learning institutions that are well equipped to allow for specialization and high quality education (Sedgwick, 2008). In addition, students in both countries are at liberty to choose the school or universities where they can join public, private, or home school. Furthermore, both countries create an enabling and competitive environment for the provision of education to students with special needs. ... In fact, in both countries, education is a major priority and as such both governments allocates huge resources to the education sector. To this extent, both governments finances general education for both boys and girls, accords financial assistance to needy students and offers free post-secondary education to all. At the same time, both governments provide many learning institutions that are well equipped to allow for specialization and high quality education (Sedgwick, 2008). In addition, students in both countries are at liberty to choose the school or universities where they can join public, private, or home school. Furthermore, both countries create an enabling and competitive environment for the provision of education to students with special needs. Nevertheless, there are huge disparities in the running of education systems between the two nations. Indeed, the level of attitude towards education varies in that while in America education attendance is mandatory, education atte ndance is a matter of choice in Saudi Arabia. Actually, education is uniform at primary and secondary levels.  In addition, the aspect of religion plays part in Saudi Arabian education system and has no effect in American education system. Actually, education in Saudi Arabia relates with religion where the school curriculum follows sharia law and Qur'an teachings. The issue of gender brings a huge difference between the two education systems. Saudi Arabia practices sex segregation according to sharia law thus offering single-sex schools while America offers multi-sex schools (U.S. Network for Education Information, 2001). Uniquely is the fact that though education is universal for both genders in America giving

International investing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International investing - Essay Example And it is usually easy for holders of corporate securities to sell their shares when the business is not doing well. The stockholders of a corporation risk only what they paid for their investment. The growth of international investors has greatly increased the degree of world wide economic and political interdependence. Over the past years, there has been an increasing amount of investment in the U.S. by foreign investors and in foreign nations by U.S. investors (Brigham, Houston, & Clark, 2004). These developments only suggest an increasing degree of mutual influence and interdependence among businessmen and nations, to which the United States is not immune. Here are the primary reasons why investors go â€Å"international†. a. HOME MARKET SATURATION. After a company has saturated its home market, growth opportunities are often better in foreign markets. These foreign markets will create the demand for its supply as they give the company new sets of consumers and eventually demand for new products will be discovered. b. SPECIALIZATION AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE. Many of the present multinational firms began their international operations because raw materials were located abroad. Specialization and comparative advantage come in. Specialization is the division of productive activities among persons and regions so that no one individual or one area is totally self-sufficient (Miller, 2004). A firm can reduce its cost by simply obtaining raw materials in countries where the price is cheaper. Other firms have moved their manufacturing facilities overseas to take advantage of cheaper production costs in low-cost countries. And because no single nation holds a commanding advantage in all technologies, companies are scouring the globe for leading scientific and design ideas. c. UNFAVORABLE DOMESTIC BUSINESS REGULATIONS AND POLICIES. The prevailing business regulations

Gideon's Trumpet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gideon's Trumpet - Essay Example It includes an evaluation of the appeal of the work to me, whether that appeal was on a logical or an emotional level. The paper weighs in on whether this work to me is worth recommending to others or not, what I would tell them prior to and after reading the work (Lewis; Sessions). II. Summary In ‘Gideon’s Trumpet’ we have the story of Clarence Earl Gideon, who in the account of Lewis launched a campaign through the letters to the Supreme Court for the right to have counsel for his case. On the one hand this is the key thread of the book, although a parallel thread looks at the general process for appeals in the Supreme Court. At the heart of the story, meanwhile is Gideon’s letter to the Supreme Court asking the court to essentially have his larceny conviction overturned on the basis of his not having been assigned a lawyer during his trial. Gideon was then in his fifties at that time. Prior to his larceny conviction, for which he wrote the Supreme Court asking for justice, Gideon had been sent to prison four other times, for various felonies. As a man Gideon’s problem was related to his being unable to hold down work for any given time, so that he drifted, and supported himself by occasionally engaging in petty thievery, as well as gambling. The impression that people who got to know him personally though, including the authorities, was that he was a harmless man, who had been marginalized by society (Lewis; Sessions). At the heart of the argument of Gideon, it is said, is the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, and whether or not the amendment clause relating to due process translated to a right to counsel for those accused of felony crimes. This has been deemed a federal concern and thus a candidate for hearing by the Supreme Court, Gideon having complied with the filing requirements for very poor petitioners such as himself. With the Supreme Court having determined that it is in their jurisdiction to hear Gideonâ₠¬â„¢s case, they then proceed to assign a lawyer to act as counsel to Gideon before the Supreme Court, in the person of a top lawyer named Abe Fortas. Betts v Brady was deemed as an important precedent case to be considered in deciding on Gideon’s petition and the right to counsel doctrine under the Fourteenth Amendment. There is a chapter that further explores the Supreme Court judges’ individual stands on following precedent or interpreting the literal meaning of the Constitution and striking down laws and precedents that contradicted the letter of the Constitutional law. This is a prelude to Fortas crafting a strategy for Gideon’s defense, and looks at the nuances of judges arriving at their decisions at the level of the Supreme Court. On the other hand, looking at Gideon’s case in greater detail, the reader is introduced to certain facts, including that he had been charged with breaking and entering as well as larceny in connection with the Poolroom a t Bay Harbor facility in June 1961, in the community where he lived at the time, the Bay Harbor Community. Gideon’s own assessment of his fate with the justice system in Florida is that of a system that essentially was prejudicial in its application of the process against those who are marginalized. This assessment is given by Lewis together with the narration that Gideon had been exemplary in his behavior in prison, often being of aid to those who had problems with dealing with the legal aspects of their crimes (Lewis; Sessions).

If all the links in the Internet were to provide reliable delivry Essay

If all the links in the Internet were to provide reliable delivry service, would the TCP reliable delivery service be redundant, - Essay Example 2007). For instance, if workstation 1 is downloading a file from Workstation 2, after receiving a data packet, computer 2 sends an acknowledgement for receiving a packet to workstation 1. However, if workstation 1 do not receives an acknowledgement from workstation 2, TCP regenerates the packet again and send it to Workstation 2. In this way, the transmission is reliable and data is transmitted an in efficient manner. In a real world scenario, an executable file that is downloaded from the Internet must be complete in size in order to be operational and TCP is up for this task. Whereas, if any chunk of the executable file fails to download, it will not work and become corrupted. Whereas, User Datagram Protocol (UDP) a connection less protocol that is operational on a layer 4 of the OSI model. Likewise, UDP is not a reliable protocol for data transmission that supports transaction oriented services (User Datagram Protocol. 2007). However, UDP can be advantageous for application such a s live video streaming, VoIP services etc. likewise, if any frame is missed from a video, the video will still carry on resulting in high availability. Moreover, the response of UDP is faster, as no acknowledgment is made for every packet. Many of the functions of an adapter can be performed in software that runs on the node’s CPU. What are advantages and disadvantages of moving this functionality from the adapter to the node? As shown in fig 1.1, data link layer pertaining to the sender is responsible for hardware encapsulation. However, the source end is responsible for hardware valuation. Similarly, network layer pertaining to the sender is responsible for performing Network address translation (NAT). NAT is a method of mapping IP addresses from one group of users to another, at the same time ensuring transparency. Likewise, NAT is also used for privacy issues i.e. it cannot be used from the outbound network for security purposes (Network Address Translation. 2007). Moreov er, the receiver’s end on the network layer ensures network valuation, as shown in Fig 1.1. Moreover, the transport layer of both the sender and receiver’s end conducts port encapsulation and port valuation. Furthermore, session layer is responsible for establishing and terminating data sessions, followed by the presentation layer that ensures data compression and sequencing for both the sender’s and receiver’s end. However, there is a visible communication between the smallest program generating sequence and the amount of compression achieved (Sayood 2005) lastly, the presentation layer network interaction. Figure 1.1 A primary disadvantage comprises of computing a datagram from the application layer that relies on resources pertaining to central processing unit and memory integrated in a dedicated hardware i.e. Ethernet Adapter. However, an advantage would be to get more control of an application interacting with users that will work with dedicated hard ware resulting in a complex task. Moreover, software approach is more efficient for upgrading technology, as hardware upgrades only require a hardware replacement. Likewise, new hardware upgrades provide adequate abstraction for ensuring user protection. As illustrated in Fig 1.1, software based deployments require a large amount of metadata to analyze the requirements. As network access layer enforces overheads

Should college students have weekdays party Essay Example for Free

Should college students have weekdays party Essay Majority of the students in the colleges like to party, they like hanging out with their friends in clubs and other places where real entertainment is offered. As Kathleen Bogle (2006) observes in her book Hooking Up many students refer to life in the college as â€Å"being a time to party or a time to let loose† (p51). They believe that life would be very boring if there was no room for partying. Bogle points out that although the college â€Å"administrators would like to believe that student life here is all about academic many students believe that the social aspect of life is equally important too. † (p52) For most of the student’s weekends offer the most ideal time for partying. This is the time when they take a break from a busy week of studying and other activities that go along with the academic life. The weekends off offer the students a time to relax and recuperate after a busy week of reading and writing assignment. Start of the semester also provides a golden time for most of the students as they are not busy with the school work at the middle of the semester the exams have started making outdoor activities for most of them difficult as they will be busy preparing for the assessment and continuous assessment texts. (Bogle, K 2006 51) College life has been described as the time when a person enjoys most as he or she prepares to enter the real life. This is a time when somebody is going through a transition in life, a stage where a person discovers his or her potential. It is the ideal time for making lifetime friends who will offer substantial companion as far as life is concerned. This is the time that most of us are â€Å"not bestowed with heavy responsibilities in life, our main duty is to read and prepare for the life ahead of schooling. †p 67 Socializing comes in hand; parties offer the best opportunity for a college student to know each other well. They are free to mingle with people of their choice; there is minimal interference as far as decision making is concerned. Most students are away from their parents for the first time in their life. To them college life offers the best opportunity to do what they have wanted to do but their parents would not approve of it. They now have all the freedom at their disposal; they can party as they wish without being reprimanded by their parents. (Bogle, K 2006 67) Partying on the weekend presents a challenge to most of the students as it interrupts with their normal learning in the course of the week but on the other hand it presents the student with a chance to relax after a hard day moving from one class to another. Partying on the weekdays should be encouraged to those students who have busy schedules in the course of the week so that they can be offered a chance to take a breather and be fully prepared to face the challenges of the week. â€Å"On the other hand this practice should be discouraged for those students who do not plan their time well. † (p87) Weekend partying should be done with a specific reason. For one it can be done because the students weekends are always occupied with other fruitful activites. For such a student in between the week offers an opportunity to socialize with the other students helping improve interpersonal relationship. Secondly a student might be having a busy scheduled in the course of the week; in such a situation partying can be used as a way of releasing tension offering the student a fresh start in the following day. (Bogle, K 2006 87) To the majority of the students their main objective of enrolling in a college is to graduate with good grades which will enable them secure good places in the job market. The grades attained will determine the future of any student. The performance will greatly depend of the student preparation in the course of schooling. A student who spends his or her time well will most likely have good grades whereas those who squander their time will have a dismal performance. Partying has been mentioned as one of the factors that have led to the poor grades for most of the college students. They dedicate minimal time for their studies while most of the time they are out partying in the clubs or in their friends’ apartments. They value play more than serious work. Though there is a popular adage that says that work with no play makes Jack a dull boy, for these students their studies are secondary as most of the time they are busy planning on their next move. To them weekdays offer the best opportunity for partying as they have plenty of time, they spend their time drinking or going to clubs which offer dancing and other entertainment packages. It has been observed that those students who spend their weekdays in clubs and other entertainment joint tend to perform dismally in class. This is due to the fact that they spend less time in their studies; instead most of their valuable time is spent in places where a student should only frequent occasionally. These students usually fail to cover the work that their courses need therefore failing in their assessments. They miss classes due to hangovers or on deliberate move so that they can be with their friends in parties. Partying usually involves drinking and in most cases alcohol, those who party on weekdays are mostly those students who are addicted to the binge, they can not do with out it. These students are usually in company of their friends who may be new in the college or even old colleguaes. This presents a dangerous chance for those who are not into alcohol taking to be introduced into this bad habit. This means most of the students get introduced in to alcohol by their party friends. Peer pressure takes root where the students indulge in to dangerous habits so that they can fit in a particular group. All this happens on the courtesy of partying especially on the weekdays. Some of the weekday’s revelers have been described as social misfits as they do this as a way of escaping from the reality. They are going through a lot in their lives and partying to them is a way of life through which life‘s ups and downs can be tackled. There other who do this so that they can fit in to a particular group. Most of the students who had lived a sheltered life in their previous levels usually misuse the new found freedom. They join partying groups that exist in colleges and have to do certain things so that they can be accepted in these groups. Hanging out with these groups calls for a lot of sacrifice to some of the students as they have to forego their studies so that they can spend considerable time with their gangs. This calls for weekdays parties as the students neglect their studies. (Goodyear,M and Khohr 1994 324) Too much of anything is dangerous; partying also fits comfortably in this description. Weekday partying indicates that a student puts too much emphasis on leisure at the expense of other activities more so the studies. This is a dangerous trend as it interferes with the studies and at the same time the students makes it a habit which will be extended in to the life beyond college. When such a case happens the person will have a difficulty life as an adult since they will continue spending most of their times partying either in clubs or either organizing such activities with their friends. This leads to depletion of finances putting an individual in to a financial crisis which might be hard to solve. (Lerardo,K 2007 27) Weekday’s party might not be all that bad to some students who can control their time; this offers them a good moment to make friends. This is the opportune time that the college students get to meet their life time partners more so those who travel during the weekends and can get any other moment to party with their college mates. Through partying one gets to know their college mates better, analyzing their characters and how they behave in an environment which is away from the classroom. This is the best setting that one can get to know the true character of the person. Weekday’s offer that close touch as most of the clubs are not fully packed therefore they will have a good moment where they can get to know each other. Dating is most suited on a weekday when students are not hanging out as a group, therefore this time becomes ideal for those students who would like to engage into a serious relationship and at the same time keep the contacts of their friends especially those they hangout with. (Brunell,M 2001 345) The weekdays college party scene is not harmful when it is done responsibly. The acitivity provides an amount of positive reinforcement where the students are presented with an opportunity to share ideas especially the going on of the week. These scene can be used as an extension of class work where students discuss different topics related to what they had covered in class on that particular day. This streghthens students understanding as they will take it as fun and they may be motivated to read widely so that they can always have something to share with their freidns during such gatherings. The weekdays parties which do not involve alcohol and other types of toxic substances should be encouraged as they cement the students relations therefore minimising conflicts in colleges. They should be organized oftenly so that the students can be given a chance to interact with each other while offering each other some useful tips on how to go about life. This situation presents the college students with a chance to make future acquitances,bonds that can last for a life time. These are the type of friendship that go beyond the college education. Later in life people come to value these relationship as one turns to the college friends for help when in a fix. (Sorell,C 2007) Weekdays party for the students who are not responsible enough should be discouraged at all cost. These students do not have the sense of time and to them life is easy and theylive for a moment. This is a very risky trend as it gives rise to irresposible ggraduates who can not be trusted in their jobs and also in the society. It would be a waste of time for most of the students to attend these parties where they are not bound to gain. These students engaged in such parties as a means of passing time or as a way of fitting into a certain group. Their aims are not objective,they have no perspective in life therefore they need guidance as to how they should spend their time in college. Partying for the sake of it especially on weekdays when a student is supposed to be busy with the school work does more harm than good to most of the students especially those who have not taken full responsibility on their studies. (Sorell,C 2007) The party animals as they are referred in most colleges do not differentiate between weekdays and weekends ,to them everyday is a party time. When you compare the perfomance of these students with the rest in the college one will note a difference. Their performance is poor and most likely this will be extended into their final grades in college. What this means is that their whole life will be affected too as they are likely to get low paying jobs due to their poor grades which was as a result of their poor mangement of time. All serious students will tell you that weekdays party are in most cases a waste of the precious time which should be instead dedicated to ones study. On the finances weekdays parties tend to be cheaper as compared to the weekends. This is due to the reason that weekends attract most students and are considerd peak times. Due to the cost invloved one may tend to attend party during weekdays as the cost is fairer as compared to the other times. This is not a cost saving measure as eventually one will discover that they will have spent more money when compared to those students who frequent clubs only once per week and that is on the weekends. The weekdays revelers tend to use more as they may be tempted to go on a daily basis. Therefore this habit not only impacts on their education but on their finaces too. When planned well weekdays parties can be very rewarding to the college students but on the same note they can impact negatively on one studies. Proper utilization of time during college life leads to good performance while poor time management usually results into discouraging grades. The ultimate goal for any student in college is to pass the examination and eventually come out with good grades. When a student spend most of their time engaging in parties especially on weekdays they are on the wrong track and this will be shown by their perfomance. These students may not take things seriously therefore even in their lives after the college they will go on with the same habit leading to problems. Though partying has its own advantages it should be done with caution as it can divert the students attention and goals. Responsible partying calls for the student to know when they should engage in this activity and then plan on how long this should take. Its only through such endevaours that one life in college will be successful. As we have seen weekdays party has its advantages and disadvantages,it for the concerned students to make a proper choice or in other cases an wrong choice. When one plans to party on weekdays at the expense of his or her studies such a person should be prepared to meet the consequence of suchkind of actions. Responsible partying calls for extreme caution as it can be the cause of misery in ones life either financially or through poor grades something which can affect the whole of a students life. Strengthening bonds,a way of relaxing are some of the benefits that can be derived from weekdays partying but this can only be achieved through proper planning otherwise this might not be achieved. Work cited Bogle,K Hooking Up,NYU Press (2006) Brunell,M Girlhood in America, London,ABC CLIO(2001) Goodyear,M and Khohr Managing Effective living, New York,Wiley Publishers Sorell,C America’s Underage College Party Scene ,Rogerian Argument (2007) Retrieved from http://cssorrell. wordpress. com/2007/11/13/rogerian-argument on 6th May 2009 Lerardo,K College Unzipped,Kaplan Publishing Co. (2007)

Timed Efficient Stream Loss-Tolerant Authentication (TESLA)

Timed Efficient Stream Loss-Tolerant Authentication (TESLA) When considered as a security solution for ADS-B, asymmetric-key encryption has two major drawbacks. The first issue is that current asymmetric-key schemes have no compact encryption implementations, and would result in an increase of the transmitted ADS-B message length. The second problem is that unique encrypted ADS-B messages would be required for each recipient. To maintain a fully-connected network of n nodes would necessitate (n2 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ n) unique broadcasts rather than n in the current system [15], which obviously does not scale well as the size of the network increases. As a possible answer to these two drawbacks, Costin et al. [3] have suggested what they term a lightweight PKI solution. In the lightweight PKI approach, node A transmits its digital signature over n messages, so that after every n messages, the surrounding nodes have received As digital signature. The recipients keep the messages until the entire digital signature has been transmitted and they can authenticate the buffered messages. The authors suggest that the PKI key distribution necessary for this scheme could be done during an aircrafts scheduled maintenance cycle [13]. A security scheme called Timed Efficient Stream Loss-Tolerant Authentication (TESLA) is a variation on traditional asymmetric cryptography that has been proposed for use on broadcast networks [19], [20]. With TESLA, senders retroactively publish their keys which are then used by receivers to authenticate the broadcast messages. A broadcasting node produces an encrypted message authentication code (MAC) which is included with every message. After a designated time interval or number of messages, the key to decrypt the senders MAC is published. Listening receivers who have buffered the senders previous messages can then decrypt the messages that were broadcast. When applied to ADS-B, this technique imposes a time delay on the broadcast due to the need to buffer messages, but it provides integrity and continuity of messages sent over the network. TESLA is an adaption of the TESLA protocol designed for use on wireless sensor networks. The TESLA protocol requires nodes in the network to be loosely time synchronized, with each node having an upper bound on the maximum clock synchronization error. As discussed earlier, asymmetric encryption schemes have high computation and communication overhead, which limit their usefulness as security approaches on the bandwidth-constrained ADS-B network. The TESLA protocol overcomes this problem by employing asymmetric-key encryption through a delayed disclosure of symmetric keys, which results in an efficient broadcast authentication scheme. When one considers the bandwidth and interference limitations on the ADS-B frequency channel, the TESLA design adaptations identify this protocol as a viable scheme for providing security in ADS-B. However, there are two obstacles to applying TESLA to ADS-B. The primary issue is that, while sufficiently good time synchronization could be provided via GPS, it would require modification to the protocol to accommodate the GPS timestamp field. The second problem is that in order for TESLA to be used for verifying the identity of a network node, it needs to be reinitialized which leaves it susceptible to memory- based DoS attacks. In spite of these drawbacks, TESLA is a promising security scheme for integrating into ADS-B. B. Aircraft Address Message Authentication Code The cryptographic solutions PKI and TESLA both have shortcomings in that they require modifications to the current ADS-B protocol. The Aircraft Address Message Authentication Code (AA-MAC) security solution utilizes a standard hash algorithm such as MD5 or SHA and a secret authentication key to perform message integrity [21]. The AA-MAC message source integrity scheme would require a slight modification to the existing protocol in that it would replace the current Aircraft Address (AA) field with the MAC, but the ADS-B message is otherwise unchanged. The AA-MAC approach proposes a different aircraft identification strategy, assigning a unique identifier to each aircraft that is good for the duration of a particular flight. As with PKI cryptographic approaches, the distribution of the secret key presents challenges for AA-MAC. Since MAC requires just one key which is used to uniquely identify a sender on the network, the simplest approach would be to distribute the secret key only whe n an aircraft intends to enter the air traffic control system and ADS-B network. The purpose here is to demonstrate a compatible security scheme that will mitigate threats posed by message injection and modification attacks, which are among the most critical vulnerabilities in the current ADS-B implementation. While AA-MAC does not provide data integrity, it is highly compatible with the existing 1090ES protocol and can be implemented at low cost relative to other security proposals, offering a feasible partial security solution for ADS-B. 4.1.2. Non-Cryptographic Schemes As we have seen, cryptographic security schemes are difficult to implement in a way that are not compatible with the existing infrastructure, primarily due to the problem of key distribution and management. Non-cryptographic approaches to network security avoid the challenge of key management and instead involve either some form of fingerprinting on the physical layer, or a frequency modulation scheme such as spread spectrum. A. Fingerprinting Schemes such as fingerprinting encompass various methods for authentication and identification, either based on hardware or software imperfections or characteristics of the frequency channel which are hard to replicate. Identifying signatures for legitimate nodes on the network provides data useful for the implementation of systems to detect network intrusions [22]. Software-Based Fingerprinting schemes attempt to isolate distinct characteristics of the software operating on network equipment. The development teams for different network equipment manufacturers often take widely varied paths when implementing software on a given device. These differences can be cataloged and later exploited to tell apart dissimilar network devices, and can be used to verify their continuity up to a certain degree. Hardware-Based Fingerprinting approaches seek to identify and catalog unique network hardware differences. Some of these differences can be used for radiometric fingerprinting, which takes advantage of differences in the modulation of a radio signal to catalog unique device signatures. Clock skew is another identifiable hardware feature that can be used to establish uniqueness between wireless devices. Since no two clocks are perfectly synchronized, time difference can be used to create signatures and enable identification. A third category of fingerprinting is Channel/Location-Based Fingerprinting. This fingerprinting method tries to exploit natural characteristics of the communications channel. Various approaches utilizing received signal strength (RSS), channel impulse response (CIR) and the carrier phase have shown that this can be a viable alternative to more traditional authentication and verification measures.